{"product_id":"solar-energy-the-physics-and-engineering-of-photovoltaic-conversion-technologies-and-systems","title":"Solar Energy: The physics and engineering of photovoltaic conversion, technologies and systems","description":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBook info:\u003c\/strong\u003e Solar Energy: The physics and engineering of photovoltaic conversion, technologies and systems (Paperback, 488 pages) – UIT Cambridge Ltd., 2016. Language: English.\u003c\/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis book provides a broad overview on the different aspects of solar energy, with a focus on photovoltaics, which is the technology that allows light energy to be converted into electric energy.Renewable energy sources have become increasingly popular in recent years, and solar is one of the most adaptable and attractive types – from solar farms to support the National Grid to roof panels\/tiles used for solar thermal heating systems, and small solar garden lights. Written by Delft University researchers, Solar Energy uniquely covers both the physics of photovoltaic (PV) cells and the design of PV systems for real-life applications, from a concise history of solar cells components and location issues of current systems. The book is designed to make this complicated subject accessible to all, and is packed with fascinating graphs and charts, as well as useful exercises to cement the topics covered in each chapter.Solar Energy outlines the fundamental principles of semiconductor solar cells, as well as PV technology: crystalline silicon solar cells, thin-film cells, PV modules, and third-generation concepts. There is also background on PV systems, from simple stand-alone to complex systems connected to the grid. This is an invaluable reference for physics students, researchers, industrial engineers and designers working in solar energy generation, as well those with a general interest in renewable energy.\u003c\/p\u003e  \n\n                                         Editorial Reviews                   About the Author   The authors all teach and research physics at the University of Delft in The Netherlands, where they are prominent in the field of solar photovoltaics. Their vision is to educate the next generation about the development of sustainable energy systems for a greener future.           Excerpt. © Reprinted by permission. All rights reserved.   Solar energyThe Physics and Engineering of Photovoltaic Conversion, Technologies and SystemsBy Arno HM Smets, Klaus Jäger, Olindo Isabella, René ACMM van Swaaij, Miro ZemanUIT Cambridge LtdCopyright © 2016 UIT Cambridge Ltd.\u003cbr\u003eAll rights reserved.\u003cbr\u003eISBN: 978-1-906860-32-5\u003cbr\u003eContentsForeword, \u003cbr\u003eDean's message, \u003cbr\u003ePreface, \u003cbr\u003eAbout this Book, \u003cbr\u003eNomenclature, \u003cbr\u003eI Introduction, \u003cbr\u003e1 Energy, \u003cbr\u003e2 Status and prospects of PV technology, \u003cbr\u003e3 The working principle of a solar cell, \u003cbr\u003eII PV fundamentals, \u003cbr\u003e4 Electrodynamic basics, \u003cbr\u003e5 Solar radiation, \u003cbr\u003e6 Basic semiconductor physics, \u003cbr\u003e7 Generation and recombination of electron-hole pairs, \u003cbr\u003e8 Semiconductor junctions, \u003cbr\u003e9 Solar cell parameters and equivalent circuit, \u003cbr\u003e10 Losses and efficiency limits, \u003cbr\u003eIII PV technology, \u003cbr\u003e11 A short history of solar cells, \u003cbr\u003e12 Crystalline silicon solar cells, \u003cbr\u003e13 Thin-film solar cells, \u003cbr\u003e14 A closer look to some processes, \u003cbr\u003e15 PV modules, \u003cbr\u003e16 Third generation concepts, \u003cbr\u003eIV PV systems, \u003cbr\u003e17 Introduction to PV systems, \u003cbr\u003e18 Location issues, \u003cbr\u003e19 Components of PV systems, \u003cbr\u003e20 PV system design, \u003cbr\u003e21 PV system economics and ecology, \u003cbr\u003eV Alternative solar energy conversion technologies, \u003cbr\u003e22 Solar thermal energy, \u003cbr\u003e23 Solar fuels, \u003cbr\u003eAppendix, \u003cbr\u003eA Derivations in electrodynamics, \u003cbr\u003eB Derivation of homojunction J-V curves, \u003cbr\u003eC Some aspects of surface recombination, \u003cbr\u003eD The morphology of selected TCO samples, \u003cbr\u003eE Some aspects on location issues, \u003cbr\u003eF Derivations for DC-DC converters, \u003cbr\u003eG Fluid-dynamic model, \u003cbr\u003eBibliography, \u003cbr\u003eIndex, \u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cbr\u003eCHAPTER 1\u003cp\u003eEnergy\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs this book is on solar energy, it is good to start the discussion with some general thoughts on energy. We begin with a quote from The Feynman Lectures on Physics.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere is a fact, or if you wish, a law, governing all natural phenomena that are known to date. There is no known exception to this law — it is exact so far as we know. The law is called the conservation of energy. It states that there is a certain quantity, which we call energy, that does not change in the manifold changes which nature undergoes. That is a most abstract idea, because it is a mathematical principle; it says that there is a numerical quantity which does not change when something happens. It is not a description of a mechanism, or anything concrete; it is just a strange fact that we can calculate some number and when we finish watching nature go through her tricks and calculate the number again, it is the same.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e...\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnergy has a large number of different forms, and there is a formula for each one. These are: gravitational energy, kinetic energy, heat energy, elastic energy, electrical energy, chemical energy, radiant energy, nuclear energy, mass energy. If we total up the formulas for each of these contributions, it will not change except for energy going in and out.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is important to realize that in physics today, we have no knowledge of what energy is. We do not have a picture that energy comes in little blobs of a definite amount. It is not that way. However, there are formulas for calculating some numerical quantity, and when we add it all together it gives ... always the same number. It is an abstract thing in that it does not tell us the mechanism or the reasons for the various formulas.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.1 Some definitions\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe will now state some basic physical connections between the three very important physical quantities of energy, force, and power. These connections are taken from classical mechanics but are generally valid. We start with the force F, which is any influence on an object that changes its motion. According to Newton's second law, the force is related to the acceleration a of a body via\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eF = ma, (1.1)\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere m is the mass of the body. The bold characters denote that F and a are vectors. The unit of force is newton (N), named after Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727). It is defined as the force required to accelerate the mass of 1 kg at an acceleration rate of 1 m s-2, hence 1 N = 1 kg m s-2.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnergy E, the central quantity of this book, is given as the product of F times the distance s,\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eE = ? F(s) ds. (1.2)\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnergy is usually measured in the unit of joule (J), named after the English physicist James Prescott Joule (1818–1889). It is defined as the amount of energy required to apply the force of 1 newton through the distance of 1 m, 1 J = 1 Nm.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother important physical quantity is power P, which tells us the rate of doing work, or, which is equivalent, the amount of energy consumed per time unit. It is related to energy via\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eE = ? P(t) dt, (1.3)\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere t denotes the time. P is usually measured in the unit of watt (W), after the Scottish engineer James Watt (1736–1819). 1 W is defined as one joule per second, 1 W = 1 J\/s and 1 J = 1 Ws.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs we will see later on, 1 J is a very small amount of energy compared to human energy consumption. Therefore, in the energy markets, such as the electricity market, often the unit kilowatt hour (kWh) is used. It is given as\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1 kWh = 1,000 Wh x 3,600 s\/h = 3,600,000, Ws (1.4)\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, the amounts of energy in solid state physics, the branch of physics that we will use to explain how solar cells work, are very small. Therefore, we will use the unit of electron volt, which is the energy a body with a charge of one elementary charge (q = 1.602 × 10-19 C) gains or loses when it is moved across an electric potential difference of 1 volt (V),\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1eV = q x 1V = 1.602 x 10-19 J. (1.5)\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2 Human energy consumption\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter these somewhat abstract definitions we will look at the human energy consumption. The human body is at a constant temperature of about 37 °C. It therefore contains thermal energy. As the body is continuously cooled by its surroundings, thermal energy is lost to the outside. Further, blood is pumped through the blood vessels. As it travels through the vessels, its kinetic energy is reduced because of internal friction and friction at the walls of the blood vessels, i.e. the kinetic energy is converted into heat. To keep the blood moving, the heart consumes energy. Also, if we want our body to move, this consumes energy. Further, the human brain consumes a lot of energy. All of this energy has to be supplied to the body from the outside in the form of food. An average body of a human adult male requires about 10,000 kJ every day. We can easily show that this consumption corresponds to an average power of the human body of 115.7W. We will come back to this value later.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn modern society, humans not only require energy to keep their body running but in fact consume energy for many different purposes. We use energy for heating the water in our houses and for heating our houses. If water is heated, its thermal energy increases, and this energy must be supplied from the outside. Further, we use a lot of energy for transportation of people and products, by cars, trains, trucks and planes. We use energy to produce our goods and also to produce food. At the moment, you are consuming energy when you are reading this book on a computer or tablet. But also if you are reading it in a printed version, you implicitly consume the energy that was required to print it and to transport it to your place.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs mentioned above, energy is never produced but always converted from one form to another. The form of energy may change in time, but the total amount does not change. If we want to utilize energy to work for us, we usually convert it from one form to another more useable form. An example is the electric motor, in which we convert electrical energy to mechanical energy.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo measure the amount of energy humankind consumes, we refer to two concepts: first, primary energy, which 'is the energy embodied in natural resources prior to undergoing any human-made conversions or transformations. Examples of primary energy resources include coal, crude oil, sunlight, wind, running rivers, vegetation, and uranium. Humans do not directly use carriers of primary energy, but converted forms of energy, which are called secondary energy or final energy. Examples of secondary energy carriers are electricity, refined fuels such as gasoline or diesel, and heat which is transported to consumers via district heating.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eModern society is very much based on the capability of humankind to convert energy from one form to another. The most prosperous and technologically developed nations are also the ones which have access to and are consuming the most energy per inhabitant. Table 1.1 shows the primary energy consumption per capita and the average power consumed per capita for several countries. We see that the average US citizen uses an average power of 9,319 W, which is about 80 times what his body needs. In contrast, an average citizen from India only uses about 800 W, which is less then a tenth of the US consumption.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMany people believe that tackling the energy problem is among the biggest challenges for humankind in the 21st century. This challenge consists of several problems: First, humankind is facing a supply–demand problem. The demand is continuously growing as the world population is rapidly increasing – some studies predict a world population of 9 billion around 2040, in contrast to the 7 billion people living on the planet in 2014. All these people will need energy, which increases the global energy demand. Further, in many countries the living standard is rapidly increasing; like China and India, where approximately 2.5 billion people are living, which represents more than a third of the world's population. Also the increasing living standards lead to an increased energy demand.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to the BP Energy Outlook 2035 the global energy consumption is expected to rise by 37% between 2013 and 2035, where virtually all (96%) of the projected growth is in non-OECD countries. The increasing demand in energy has economic impact, as well. If there is more demand for a product, while supply does not change that much, the product will get more expensive. This basic market mechanism is also true for energy. As an example we show a plot of the annual average price for a barrel of oil in Figure 1.1. We see that prices went up during the oil crisis in the 1970s, when some countries stopped producing and trading oil for a while. The second era of higher oil prices started at the beginning of this millennium. Due to the increasing demand from new growing economies, the oil prices increased significantly.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA second challenge that we are facing is related to the fact that our energy infrastructure heavily depends on fossil fuels like oil, coal and gas, as shown in Figure 1.2. Fossil fuels are nothing but millions and millions of years of solar energy stored in the form of chemical energy. The problem is that humans deplete these fossil fuels much faster than they are generated through the photosynthetic process in nature. Therefore fossil fuels are not a sustainable energy source. The more fossil fuels we consume, the less easily extractable gas and oil resources will be available. Already now we see that more and more oil and gas is produced with unconventional methods, such as extracting oil from tar sands in Alberta, Canada and producing gas with hydraulic fracturing, such as in large parts of the United States. These new methods use much more energy to get the fossil fuels out of the ground. Further, offshore drilling is put in regions with ever larger water depths, which leads to new technological risks as we have seen in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA third challenge is that by burning fossil fuels we produce the so-called greenhouse gases such carbon dioxide (CO2). The additional carbon dioxide created by human activities is stored in our oceans and atmosphere. Figure 1.3 shows the increase in carbon dioxide concentration in the Earth's atmosphere up to 2015. According to the International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fifth Assessment Report (AR5),\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide have increased to levels unprecedented in at least the last 800,000 years. Carbon dioxide concentrations have increased by 40% since pre-industrial times, primarily from fossil fuel emissions and secondarily from net land use change emissions. The ocean has absorbed about 30% of the emitted anthropogenic carbon dioxide, causing ocean acidification.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurther, in the AR5 it is stated that:\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHuman influence on the climate system is clear. This is evident from the increasing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, positive radiative forcing, observed warming, and understanding of the climate system.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003eand\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003eHuman influence has been detected in warming of the atmosphere and the ocean, in changes in the global water cycle, in reductions in snow and ice, in global mean sea level rise, and in changes in some climate extremes. This evidence for human influence has grown since AR4. It is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHence, it seems very clear that the increase in carbon dioxide is responsible for global warming and climate change, which can have drastic consequences on the habitats of many people.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSince the beginning of the industrial revolution, humankind has been heavily dependent on fossil fuels. Within a few centuries, we are exhausting solar energy that was incident on Earth for hundreds of millions of years, converted into chemical energy by photosynthetic processes and stored in the form of gas, coal and oil.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore the industrial revolution, the main source of energy was wood and other biomasses, which is a secondary form of solar energy. The energy source was replenished in the same characteristic time as the energy being consumed. In the pre- industrial era, humankind was basically living on a secondary form of solar energy. However, also back then the way we consumed energy was not fully sustainable. For example, deforestation due to increasing population density was already playing a role at the end of the first millennium.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.3 Methods of energy conversion\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure 1.4 shows different energy sources and the ways we utilize them. We see that usually the chemical energy stored in fossil fuels is converted to usable forms of energy via heat by burning, with an efficiency of about 90%. Using heat engines, thermal energy can be converted into mechanical energy. Heat engines have a conversion efficiency of up to 60%. Their efficiency is ultimately limited by the Carnot efficiency limit that we will discuss in Chapter 10. The vast majority of the current cars and trucks works on this principle. Mechanical energy can be converted into electricity using electric generators with an efficiency of 90% or even higher. Most of the world's electricity is generated using turbogenerators that are connected to a steam turbine, where coal is the major energy source. This process is explained in more detail in our discussion on solar thermal electric power in Chapter 22. Along all the process steps of making electricity out of fossil fuels, at least 50% of the initial available chemical energy is lost in the various conversion steps.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChemical energy can be directly converted into electricity using a fuel cell. The most common fuel used in fuel cell technology is hydrogen. Typical conversion efficiencies of fuel cells are 60%. A regenerative fuel cell can operate in both directions and also convert electrical energy into chemical energy. Such an operation is called electrolysis; typical conversion efficiencies for hydrogen electrolysis of 50-80% have been reported. We will discuss electrolysis in more detail in Chapter 23.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn nuclear power plants, energy is released as heat during nuclear fission reactions. The heat generates steam which drives a steam turbine and subsequently an electric generator just as in most fossil fuel power plants.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.3.1 Renewable energy carriers\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll the energy carriers discussed above are either fossil or nuclear fuels. They are not renewable because they are not \"refilled\" by nature, at least not in a useful amount of time. In contrast, renewable energy carriers are energy carriers that are replenished by natural processes at a rate comparable or faster than their rate of consumption by humans. Consequently, hydro, wind and solar energy are renewable energy sources.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHydroelectricity is an example of an energy conversion technology that is not based on heat generated by fossil or nuclear fuels. The potential energy of rain falling in mountainous areas or elevated plateaus is converted into electrical energy via a water turbine. With tidal pools the potential energy stored in the tides can also be converted to mechanical energy and subsequently electricity. The kinetic energy of wind can be converted into mechanical energy using windmills.\u003c\/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, the energy contained in sunlight, called solar energy, can be converted into electricity as well. If this energy is converted into electricity directly using devices based on semiconductor materials, we call it photovoltaics (PV). The term photovoltaic is derived from the greek word [TEXT NOT REPRODUCIBLE IN ASCII] (phos), which means light, and volt, which refers to electricity and is a reverence to the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta (1745–1827) who invented the battery. As we will see in this book, typical efficiencies of the most commercial solar modules are in the range of 15-20%. \u003c\/p\u003e\u003cbr\u003e(Continues...)Excerpted from Solar energy by Arno HM Smets, Klaus Jäger, Olindo Isabella, René ACMM van Swaaij, Miro Zeman. Copyright © 2016 UIT Cambridge Ltd.. Excerpted by permission of UIT Cambridge Ltd. \u003cbr\u003eAll rights reserved. No part of this excerpt may be reproduced or reprinted without permission in writing from the publisher.\u003cbr\u003eExcerpts are provided by Dial-A-Book Inc. solely for the personal use of visitors to this web site.                                           ","brand":"Arno Smets, Klaus Jäger, Olindo Isabella, René van Swaaij, Miro Zeman","offers":[{"title":"Default Title","offer_id":46069415149802,"sku":"9781906860325","price":27.85,"currency_code":"USD","in_stock":true}],"thumbnail_url":"\/\/cdn.shopify.com\/s\/files\/1\/0714\/5301\/6298\/files\/71OMe0Ab_9L._SL1500.jpg?v=1781207561","url":"https:\/\/textbookme.store\/products\/solar-energy-the-physics-and-engineering-of-photovoltaic-conversion-technologies-and-systems","provider":"TextbookMe","version":"1.0","type":"link"}